Posted on July 15, 2010 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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This post describes the profound impact Silvan Tomkins had on our understanding of human emotions. It was written in collaboration with Donald Nathanson, MD.
“We do not possess a systematic statement of the psychoanalytic theory of affects” (Rappaport, 1953, p. 476).
“Tomkins began a limited revolution – a paradigm shift, in Kuhnian terms” (Knapp, 1987, p 221).
Freud “had no satisfactory hypothesis to account for affectivity in general… Adequate explanations were finally proposed by Tomkins” (Gedo, 2005, p. 90).
Working within the traditions of both Darwin and Freud, Silvan S. Tomkins fused evolutionary and psychodynamic concepts to describe the specific kinds of affects, their mechanism of action, and their development. Tomkins detailed the nature of affect itself and the triggers for each of the nine affects, demonstrating 1) the nature, development, and transformations of the affect system; 2) its virtually unlimited ideo-affective structure; 3) the importance of affect as the source of all motivation; 4) its functional relation to both cognition and the drives; and 5) the clinical implications of these concepts. Psychoanalytic theorist Michael Franz Basch called Tomkins the “founder of modern affect theory” (1991, p. 296).
Silvan Solomon Tomkins was born June 4, 1911, in Philadelphia and died June 10, 1991, at the nearby New Jersey shore he loved so deeply. He entered the University of Pennsylvania with the intent to become a playwright, earned an MA in psychology, and left in 1934 with a doctorate in philosophy. The topics of his dissertation – logic and value theory – remained central throughout his career. In 1936 he began postdoctoral study in philosophy at Harvard University, where he became fascinated by the pioneering work on personality emerging from the Harvard Psychological Clinic under the leadership of Henry A. Murray and Robert W. White. In 1947 he began an 18-year tenure in Princeton University’s Department of Psychology, where his interest in the relation between emotion (which he came to call “affect”) and personality formation became the defining theme of his career.
Tomkins’s life work saw print as the four volumes of Affect Imagery Consciousness (1962, 1963, 1991, 1992). Central was the question: How do such varied internal and external stimuli as biological drives, external events, memory, imagination, thinking, words, and other affects, all trigger the relatively small number of discrete responses he defined as the nine innate affects? Collected as his Affect Theory, Tomkins’s answer involves his definition of the affect system as a set of physiological responses to the increase, decrease, or level (quantity) of any stimulus, and it takes into account both the environment (stimuli) and individual variation (temperament).
Most of the basic inborn affects he described were given a range name to indicate the scope of their variations: interest-excitement, enjoyment-joy, surprise-startle, distress-anguish, anger-rage, fear-terror, shame-humiliation, disgust (reaction to noxious tastes) and dissmell (reaction to noxious odors). These affects combine with each other and with any form of experience to become our complex emotional life. His Script Theory organizes a sophisticated understanding of character structure and draws together a wide range of clinical observations and treatment implications.
Tomkins was mentor to and colleague with Virginia Demos, Paul Ekman, Carroll Izard, and Donald Nathanson, among many others. In the latter half of the 20th century this group was instrumental in advancing the understanding of affect by more specifically describing these universal inherited emotional processes and how they develop and function. As nicely described by Ekman (1998), this work provided compelling evidence to help reject the cultural relativism of Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson; current scientific data overwhelmingly support the evolutionary and inherited roles of expressions of emotion (Ekman, 1998; Mayr, 2001; Panksepp, 1998).
Tomkins’s theoretical, experimental, and clinical work has been extended by a number of former students, many now working under the banner of The Silvan Tomkins Institute. His ideas have taken root in several fields, and the subject of innate affect now intrigues a new generation of scholars and clinicians. Undoubtedly, time will increasingly enhance our understanding of human feelings and motivation, but perhaps Demos says it best: “Tomkins’ theory represents the state of the art at this time” (1998, p. 102).
(For those interested, the website for the Tomkins Institute is www.tomkins.org. It also contains information about the October 2010 conference.)
References
Basch, M. F. (1976). The concept of affect: A re-examination. Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association, 24, 759-777.
Basch, M. F. (1991). The significance of a theory of affect for psychoanalytic technique. Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association, 39, 291-304.
Demos, E. V. (1998). Differentiating the repetition compulsion from trauma through the lens of Tomkins’ script theory: A response to Russell. In J. G. Teicholz & D. Kriegman (Eds.), Trauma, repetition, and affect regulation: The work of Paul Russell (pp. 67-104). New York: Other Press.
Ekman, P. (Ed.). (1998). The expression of the emotions in man and animals (C. Darwin, 3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1872)
Gedo, J. E. (2005). Psychoanalysis as biological science: A comprehensive theory. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Knapp, P. H. (1987). Some contemporary contributions to the study of emotions. Journal of American Psychoanalytic Association,35, 205-248.
Mayr, E. (2001). What evolution is. New York: Basic Books.
Nathanson, D.L. (1991) Shame and Pride: Affect, sex, and the birth of the self. New York: WW Norton.
Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rapaport, D. (1967). On the psychoanalytic theory of affects. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 34, 177-198. In M. M. Gill (Ed.), Collected papers (pp. 476-512). New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1953)
Tomkins, S. S. (1962). Affect imagery consciousness: Vol. I. The positive affects. New York: Springer.
Tomkins, S. S. (1963). Affect imagery consciousness: Vol. II. The negative affects. New York: Springer.
Tomkins, S. S. (1991). Affect imagery consciousness: Vol. III. The negative affects: Anger and fear. New York: Springer.
Tomkins, S. S. (1992). Affect imagery consciousness: Vol. IV. Cognition: Duplication and transformation of information. New York: Springer.
Posted on July 12, 2010 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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Roy R. Grinker, Sr., M.D. (1900 – 1993)
Roy Grinker’s life spanned nearly the entire 20th century, and his influence on the development of psychiatry during that century was profound. A clinician, teacher, researcher, and administrator, he wrote over 25 books, more than 350 papers, was Chief Editor of the Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry from 1956 – 1976, and founded one of the finest inpatient and outpatient psychiatric facilities in the country.
Grinker was born in 1900 in Chicago, attended the University of Chicago, Rush Medical School, became a neurologist and then psychiatrist, did post-graduate training in Zurich, London, and Hamburg, and at 27 years old became Professor of Neurology and Psychiatry at the new University of Chicago Hospital. He sought further training in the new field of psychoanalysis, going to Vienna in 1933 where he was one of Freud’s last patients. Returning to Chicago, he built the Institute for Psychosomatic and Psychiatric Research and Training at Michael Reese Hospital (P&PI) which became renowned for psychiatric treatment, training, and research. He became Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Chicago, University of Illinois, and Northwestern University, was on the faculty of the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis, and served on several editorial boards.
One of Grinker’s first major publications was his neurology textbook (Grinker’s Neurology) (1). This was followed by two books based on his work with the military in North Africa and Florida during World War II: War Neuroses in North Africa (2) and Men Under Stress (3). This research involved war trauma and treatment and remains important today. Grinker was committed to an integrated biopsychosocial view of understanding human functioning, as reflected in his 1956 book Toward a Unified Theory of Human Behavior (4). Over the next 35 years, he pioneered work in three major clinical areas: depression, borderline psychopathology and character structure, and schizophrenia. These studies were published in 1961 (The Phenomena of Depressions) (5), 1968 (The Borderline Syndrome) (6), and 1987 (Clinical Research in Schizophrenia) (7); of all his work, he may be best known for his research on the borderline dilemma.
In the midst of this productive professional life, he also had an active social life. He married and had two children, a daughter who became a lawyer and a son who became a psychoanalyst. He enjoyed bridge, gin rummy, golf, and horseshoes. Unfortunately, later in life he developed herpes zoster and suffered intractable pain until his death at age 93.
Roy Grinker was especially proud of his teaching and training, and many of his students went on to become chairs of departments across the country. He used to tell his residents who were anxious about graduating and going out into the world: “Well, you can always start the program over!” During his career, Grinker’s interests ranged over neurology, psychiatry, psychosomatic medicine, clinical research, and psychoanalysis. Ultimately, he was a mentor and role-model for several generations of teachers and leaders in all these various fields.
- Grinker RR: Grinker’s Neurology. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1933.
- Grinker RR, Spiegel J: War Neuroses in North Africa. New York: Macy Foundation, 1943.
- Grinker RR, Spiegel J: Men Under Stress. Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1945.
- Grinker RR: Toward a Unified Theory of Human Behavior. New York: Basic Books, 1956.
- Grinker RR et al: The Phenomena of Depressions. New York: Hoeber, 1961.
- Grinker RR et al: The Borderline Syndrome. New York: Basic Books, 1968.
- Grinker RR, Harrow M: Clinical Research in Schizophrenia. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1987.
Posted on February 11, 2010 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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What Is ADHD — And Why Are So Many Major League
Baseball Players Getting This Diagnosis?
How Do You Spell D-R-U-G-S?
Baseball Is Asking For Trouble Again
In December, 2009, the New York Times reported that the number of major league baseball players permitted to take otherwise-banned stimulants rose for the third year in a row, to 108 players (Michael S. Schmidt, New York Times, 12/1/09). The report was released by the testing administrator, Dr. Bryan Smith. Players can use these stimulants by virtue of having been diagnosed with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Attention Deficit Disorder – or ADD – is an older term and is now subsumed under ADHD). In 2008, 106 players were granted therapeutic use exemptions, representing 7.86% of all major league baseball players. In 2007, 103 players were exempted, and, in 2006, 28 players.
Thus, the data look like this:
2006 = 28 players given therapeutic exemptions
2007 = 103 players given therapeutic exemptions
2008 = 106 players given therapeutic exemptions
2009 = 108 players given therapeutic exemptions
Baseball says that this represents a leveling off and that few new exemptions are being given. That sounds good, but can we still be a bit skeptical?
Data from epidemiologic studies indicate that the prevalence of ADHD in children worldwide may be as high as 8-12%; however, existing data show that in adulthood the prevalence of ADHD decreases to 3-5% (1-3). So how can it be that major leagues baseball players have approximately twice the usual rate of ADHD? How do you spell D-R-U-G-S?
What Is ADHD?
ADHD is a neuropsychiatric condition characterized by problems with organization, sustaining attention, procrastination, daydreaming, hyperactivity, restlessness, and impulsivity (4). The causation of this symptom complex is not clear. It is most likely multi-faceted, involving a combination of biological and psychological factors. There are probably subgroups, within which either the biological or the psychological is more dominant.
This is a very complex and controversial problem (5-8). Are people born with brains which develop or are vulnerable to developing ADHD? Do early parenting problems and trauma cause or contribute to biological changes and susceptibility to developing ADHD? The jury is still out on these questions – the answers are simply not there yet.
What is the Treatment for ADHD?
The treatment for ADHD includes medications, psychotherapy (e.g., talking therapy, psychodynamic psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, etc.) and educational assistance (studying and organizational skills, tutoring, and the like). Medications tend to be the predominant form of treatment, but this is where things get complicated: those who work intensely with children report that talking therapy can be very effective with some children who have been diagnosed with ADHD.
So what medications are used for ADHD? Some of the commonest are Ritalin (methylphenidate), Concerta (methylphenidate), Focalin (methylphenidate), Dexedrine (dextroamphetamine), Adderall (dextroamphetamine plus amphetamine), Strattera (atomoxetine), and Provigil (modafinil).
And what are these medications? They are amphetamines or amphetamine-like drugs! They are performance enhancers! They are among the most abused drugs in the world. Perhaps most importantly, these medications are routinely sold and bought by children and adolescents in school. They are addictive. Some recent studies have shown them to be associated with sudden death (9, 10). And we do not yet know the long-term effects of sustained use of these medications.
Baseball and ADHD
Now – back to baseball. No doubt some major league ballplayers are legitimately diagnosed with and treated for ADHD… but 2-3 times the usual adult rate of ADHD?
In response to the steroid scandal, baseball instituted an increasingly effective drug-testing program. However, it is hard not to be skeptical about the high incidence of ADHD diagnoses among major league baseball players. It is hard to escape the conclusion that many players are being diagnosed ADHD as a way to obtain amphetamines and amphetamine-like drugs.
The following questions emerge: What professionals are diagnosing these players? What kind of physicians are treating and prescribing medication for them? Are Board-Certified psychiatrists with experience in ADHD involved in any part of the process? How much are the professionals involved in the diagnostic and prescribing process being paid?
Summary
It would appear baseball once again is asking for trouble in the drug arena. The solution is readily available: oversight by the appropriate physicians. But first things first: baseball must acknowledge and investigate yet another problem of potential drug abuse.
References
- Faraone SV, Sergeant J, Gillberg C, Biederman J (2003). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: Is it an American condition? World Psychiatry 2:104-113.
- Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, et al (2006). The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry 163:716-723.
- Faraone SV, Biederman J (2005). What is the prevalence of adult ADHD? Results of a population screen of 966 adults. J Atten Disord 9:384-391.
- American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM IV-TR. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
- Faraone SV, Biederman J (2009). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder research: Current status and future directions. J ADHD Relat Disord 1:7-13.
- Sugarman A (2006). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and trauma. Int J Psychonal 87:237-241.
- Salomonsson B (2004). Some psychoanalytic viewpoints on neuropsychiatric disorders in children. Int J Psychoanal 85:117-136.
- Salomonsson B (2006). The impact of words on children with ADHD and DAMP. Int J Psychoanal 87:1029-1047.
- Vitiello B, Towbin K (2009). Stimulant treatment of ADHD and risk of sudden death in children. Am J Psychiatry 166: 955-957.
- Gould MS et al (2009). Sudden death and use of stimulant medications in youths. Am J Psychiatry 166: 992-1001.
Posted on January 15, 2010 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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Bob Dylan, Infant and Child Development, and the Language of Feelings
Bob Dylan’s line from his song “Tangled Up In Blue” sums up beautifully much of infant and child development, particularly the problems some parents experience as their infant transitions into toddlerhood and begins to talk. Babies and their parents do have the same feelings, but a very different point of view – parents have language, and this changes everything!
All human beings are born with the same built-in feelings. The best model we have currently suggests about nine such feelings (previous posts describe this in detail). These are interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, anger, fear, shame, disgust (a reaction to toxic tastes) and dissmell (a reaction to toxic odors). The parents have words and language for the feelings… but the infant does not! How does she express and communicate her feelings? Through her facial expressions and gestures and the noises she makes! So how do the parents know what her baby is feeling? The parents translate – they translate from the facial expressions, gestures, and noises to the feelings! The key is translation.
So what happens when language appears between about 1 and 3 years of age? Daniel Stern calls language a double-edged sword: it can distort as well as aid communication, especially in the world of feelings. The toddler’s early language tends to be quite limited and primitive, and it is this transition to language which can cause things to go awry.
Say a 1-year-old girl drops her toy car from her highchair – she points, makes noises, and, with too much delay, begins to whimper or get red in the face and squalls. The feelings? Increasing distress and anger. Most parents will understand these feelings, be reassuring, and pick up the car.
Now, let’s fast-forward a year or two – the same girl, highchair, and car. The car falls. The girl is patient, but then begins to get upset… “Car, car!” she calls out. With too much delay, the voice gets more strident: “Car down!” And, finally, she cries out to the too-slowing-moving parent: “I no like you! I hate you!” The parent may feel assaulted and lash back: “Don’t talk like that… we don’t use those words here!”
What has happened? The feelings at one year and three years are the same: the little girl is feeling distress and anger when her car falls and she can’t get it back. But the same parent who could understand the feelings of the younger girl now is thrown off by the words of the older girl – even though the feelings are the same. The answer? Again, translation – but this time into the feelings from the words!
It’s the feelings which are most important. Why? Because it is feelings which lead to actions. Understand your child’s feelings and you will understand your child. Translate your child’s expressions – or words – back into the feelings. Label these feelings with your child: interest, enjoyment, distress, fear, and so on. Use the language of feelings.
Dylan got it right. We do feel the same – we may just be starting from a different point of view. The solution is easy – just translate into feelings!
Posted on October 22, 2009 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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Teens are Great – and Understandable
Teenagers cause parents such angst! So let’s address three questions: What are some of the issues with which parents and teens struggle? How can we understand teenagers? And what one key might be most helpful in your relationship with your teen and his or her development?
Teen and Parent Issues
Teenagers are remarkable – the volatility! The passion! The chaos, self-absorption, mood shifts, love and anger, separation and closeness.
What are teenagers dealing with? Physical changes, puberty, sexuality; the formation of their own identity, as they grapple with their identifications with their mother and father and try to figure out their own interests. Increased pressure around school, work, and friendships abound.
And what do parents struggle with? How to give their teens both roots and wings — how to enhance healthy maturation and independence while providing necessary structure and boundaries. And the arguments and distortions the teens inflict upon their parents — all this can leave parents gasping, remembering their own adolescence, and asking themselves why their teenagers have to separate in such a noisy, messy (in every sense of the word!), and provocative fashion.
Understanding Your Teenager: Focus on the Feelings
The best way to understand your teenager is by focusing on his or her feelings. Feelings are the foundation. Behaviors are caused by feelings.
Human beings appear to be born with the capacity for approximately nine feelings: interest (curiosity), enjoyment, surprise, distress, anger, fear, shame, disgust (reaction to toxic tastes) and dissmell (reaction to toxic odors). These feelings combine with each other and with experience to form our complex emotional life. Remember the issues with which teenagers struggle as noted above? These issues all stir up feelings: distress, joy, anger, embarrassment, and on and on.
So, how can we make teenagers understandable? Focus on — and talk about — their feelings!
The Main Key
And, yes, in the midst of all this complexity, there really is one major key which can enhance your relationship with your teenager and help his or her development. Focus like a laser beam on the feeling of interest (or curiosity). The feeling of interest is the root of all our exploratory, learning, and creative activities. Do your best with your teenager to figure out what his/her major interest(s) is, and then help pursue it. Does she like horses and riding? Find her a stable and opportunity to ride and take care of horses. Does he love baseball? Take him to games, get him a coach, and help him participate in whatever teams and leagues he wants. Does she like acting and singing? Get her to drama classes, stage opportunities, and a voice instructor. Is he passionate about firefighting and paramedic work? Hook him up with fire department programs, ride-along opportunities, and CPR and paramedic classes. Think it won’t work? Try it!
By understanding and focusing on what your teenager is interested in, you set them up to put 110% into their life. You give them great teen years, and you also give them the best tools for the rest of life’s major decisions — their work and relationships.
Posted on September 2, 2009 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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Why do children – and adults – behave as they do? The answer always lies in the feelings. Feelings lead to behaviors. Feelings are the motivators of our actions.
The last several articles focused on setting up a foundation for understanding feelings. The best current model suggests human beings are born with nine feelings: interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, anger, fear, shame, disgust (a reaction to toxic tastes) and dissmell (a reaction to toxic odors). These feelings combine with each other and with experience to form our more complex adult emotions.
The problem with physical punishment is twofold. First, physical punishment elicits precisely the negative feelings one does not want to generate in children, namely, distress, anger, fear, shame, and disgust. Second, physical punishment squashes precisely the feelings one wants to encourage in children, specifically interest and enjoyment.
For instance, what about the little boy or girl who is consistently hit for “getting into everything”? In such a case, distress, anger, fear, and shame become associated with the feeling of interest, which is exactly what one does not want because interest drives our learning and exploratory activities. Or how about so-called “bad words”? Try reaching for the dictionary, not the soap. The dictionary triggers interest (learning), the soap triggers anger, fear, and disgust (inhibiting learning).
Effective Alternatives to Physical Punishment
These alternatives provide parents and other caregivers with a focus on child development. They present strategies which can lead to less violent behavior in children and adults, and they can help decrease the frustration and helplessness in parents which often lead to physical punishment.
1. One of the most useful ways to achieve healthy child development is to promote words instead of actions. As Anny Katan eloquently summarized: “If a child would verbalize his feelings, he would learn to delay action.” Increasing the child’s capacity to put words to feelings and actions results in increased tension regulation, self-awareness, and thoughtful decision-making. This process is accomplished by:
a. Talking and using words instead of actions – talk rather than hit. Talk with the child about what behaviors are acceptable or not, what is safe or dangerous, and why.
b. Listening to the child – find out why he/she did or did not do something.
c. Explaining your reasons – this will enhance the child’s decision-making capacities.
2. The word “discipline” comes from the Latin word for “teaching” or “learning.” Children’s behaviors have meaning, and behaviors are directly connected to inner feelings. Thus, discipline is a process which addresses behaviors and the feelings which cause them.
3. Help the child label his or her feelings with words as early as possible. The nine inborn feelings (interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, anger, fear, shame, disgust, and dissmell) should be labeled with words. This will facilitate tension regulation and aid the transition to more mature ways of handling emotion.
4. Positive reinforcement – rewards and praise – will enhance the child’s self-esteem when appropriate standards are met. Positive reinforcement is more effective in obtaining long-term behavioral compliance than frightening and shaming punishments.
5. Set a good example for the child. The child wants to be like the parents. Children identify with their parents, and they will put feelings and actions into words when they see their parents doing this. Who the parents are, and how they behave, will have a profound impact on the development of their children. Your child will follow your lead.
Suggested Readings
American Academy of Pediatrics – Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (1998). Guidance for Effective Discipline. Pediatrics 101: 723-728.
Darwin C (1872). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. (Third Edition, P. Ekman, Editor). Oxford University Press, 1998.
Gershoff ET (2008). Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children. Columbus OH: Center for Effective Discipline.
Gershoff ET (2002). Physical punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin 128: 539-579.
Holinger PC (2003). What Babies Say Before They Can Talk: The Nine Signals Infants Use to Express Their Feelings. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Katan A (1961). Some thoughts about the role of verbalization in early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 16: 184-188.
Strauss MA (2001). Beating the Devil Out of Them: Physical Punishment in American Families (2nd Edition). Piscataway NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Posted on August 28, 2009 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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Why do we still spank children? The usual answer is to get them to do what we think is best for them – i.e., to obtain behavioral compliance. And, yet, the answer is much more complicated. Dealing with children can stir up very charged and old feelings. The arguments and screaming of a child can push the same buttons that one’s own parents or siblings pushed long ago. Or perhaps one does to one’s child what was done to oneself: “I was spanked as a child, and I turned out all right.” – Yes, but perhaps you turned out all right in spite of the spanking, not because of it… and perhaps things would have been even better if the effective alternatives to spanking which do exist had been utilized.
Overview of Physical Punishment
It turns out that physical punishment is a serious public health problem in the United States, and it profoundly affects the mental health of children and the society in which we live. Studies show that over 60% of families still use physical punishment to discipline children. Yet, the research shows that: physical punishment is associated with an increase in delinquency, antisocial behavior, and aggression in children; and physical punishment is associated with a decrease in the quality of the parent-child relationship, mental health, and the child’s capacity to internalize socially acceptable behavior. Adults who have been subject to physical punishment as children are more likely to abuse their own child or spouse and to manifest criminal behavior (see Readings, 1).
Spanking is a euphemism for hitting. One is not permitted to hit one’s spouse or a stranger; these actions are considered domestic violence and/or assault. Nor should one be permitted to hit a smaller and even more vulnerable child. Hitting a child elicits precisely the feelings one does not want to generate in a child: distress, anger, fear, shame, and disgust. Studies show that children who are hit will “identify with the aggressor,” and they are more likely to become hitters themselves, i.e., bullies and future abusers of their children and spouses. They tend to learn to use violent behavior as a way to deal with disputes.
What Is Physical Punishment? What is Physical Abuse?
Physical punishment has been defined as “the use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience bodily pain or discomfort so as to correct or punish the child’s behavior” (see Readings, 1, p. 9). This includes: spanking, hitting, pinching, squeezing, paddling, whipping/whupping, swatting, smacking, slapping, washing a child’s mouth with soap, making a child kneel on painful objects, and forcing a child to stand or sit in painful positions for long periods of time. Physical abuse can be characterized by “the infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child” (see Readings, 5, as cited in 4, p 540). Behaviors which cause pain but not physical injury are considered physical punishment, whereas behaviors which risk physical injury are termed physical abuse. Both physical punishment and physical abuse should stop. Alternatives exist which are more effective in enhancing the healthy development of children.
International Considerations
Internationally, there is increasing consensus that physical punishment of children violates international human rights law. Significantly, 24 countries have prohibited physical punishment in all settings, including the home. Among these countries are Sweden, Germany, Spain, Greece, and Venezuela. More than 100 countries have banned physical punishment in the schools. The United States has not banned physical punishment, but approval of physical punishment in the United States has declined gradually and steadily over the past 40 years. The United States has signed, but not ratified, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), an international treaty which expressly prohibits all forms of physical or mental violence (see Readings, 1).
Effective Alternatives to Physical Punishment
The American Academy of Pediatrics concludes: “Corporal punishment is of limited effectiveness and has potentially deleterious side effects. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that parents be encouraged and assisted in the development of methods other than spanking for managing undesired behavior” (see Readings, 2, p. 723).
Effective alternatives to physical punishment exist to help children tolerate frustrations, regulate tension, behave in socially-acceptable ways, develop appropriate ethical and moral standards, and improve self-esteem. These alternatives will be the subject of the next article.
As Martin Luther King, Jr., stated: “I’m sick and tired of violence… I’m tired of war and conflict in the world. I’m tired of shooting. I’m tired of hatred. I’m tired of selfishness. I’m tired of evil. I’m not going to use violence no matter who says it!” (As quoted in At Canaan’s Edge by Brandon Taylor).
If we truly want a less violent society, not hitting our children is a good place to start.
Readings
- Gershoff ET (2008). Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children. Columbus OH: Center for Effective Discipline.
- American Academy of Pediatrics – Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (1998). Guidance for Effective Discipline. Pediatrics 101: 723-728.
- Strauss MA (2001). Beating the Devil Out of Them: Physical Punishment in American Families (2nd Edition). Piscataway NJ: Transaction Publishers.
- Gershoff ET (2002). Physical punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin 128: 539-579.
- National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information (2000). What Is Child Maltreatment?
Additional Research
Gershoff examined hundreds of studies and presented the results of meta-analyses of the association between parental physical punishment and child and adult outcomes. She found that in childhood physical punishment was positively associated with aggression, delinquent and antisocial behavior, and being the victim of physical abuse; it was negatively associated with the quality of the parent-child relationship, mental health, and moral internalization (child’s internalizing of socially acceptable behavior); and associations with immediate compliance were mixed. When measured in adulthood, physical punishment was positively associated with aggression, criminal and antisocial behavior, and adult abuse of one’s own child or spouse; physical punishment was negatively associated with mental health (Readings, 1, 4).
Gershoff also summarized the various demographic and risk factors which are more likely to be associated with use of physical punishment: being single, separated, or divorced; excessive stress from negative life events; maternal depression; lower income, education, and job status; southern part of the United States; and conservative religious beliefs and affiliation (Readings, 1, 4).
Posted on August 21, 2009 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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It is difficult to imagine anything more important than understanding infant and child development. One could make the case that understanding the internal psychological world of human beings allows us to improve as a global family—and the foundation of that process involves increasing the knowledge of infant and child development.
It has become fashionable of late to trash the “parenting market” — that is, the books and magazines and TV shows which deal with parenting. Yet, much of this “parenting market” is a response to well-intentioned parents who are trying their best with their children to prevent problems and enhance potential. And, in fact, much progress has been made, with sophisticated explorations of the inner world of children and adults beginning in the early 1900’s via psychoanalysis and child psychoanalysis. The pioneers writing for the lay public back then had their hands full: they were struggling just to get parents to stop threatening their children with castration and to understand that masturbation did not cause serious mental illness!
So, progress is being made, and part of the purpose of the last few articles has been to show how much better we understand feelings (motivations) and the actions (behaviors) which result. Many people have contributed to these advances; a few of them are noted here, with some names being more familiar than others: Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Klein, Piaget, Spitz, Winnicott, Mahler, Fraiberg, Tomkins, and Stern.
But, of course, there is still progress to be made, and this ushers in the discussion of physical (corporal) punishment. Physical punishment is a major public health problem in the United States, and it is still underemphasized and largely unaddressed.
Physical punishment will be discussed in detail in the next article, but a few introductory comments might be made here. Physical punishment is associated with an increase in delinquency, antisocial behavior, and aggression in children, and a decrease in the quality of the parent-child relationship, mental health, and the child’s capacity to internalize socially acceptable behaviors; adults who have been subject to physical punishment as children are more likely to abuse their own child or spouse and to manifest criminal behavior (see the Readings below). Internationally, there is increasing consensus that physical punishment of children violates international human rights law.
The American Academy of Pediatrics concludes: “Corporal punishment is of limited effectiveness and has potentially deleterious side effects. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that parents be encouraged and assisted in the development of methods other than spanking for managing undesired behavior.” A marvelous recent report summarizing the research in this area has been written by Elizabeth Gershoff, Ph.D., and is titled Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children (see Readings below). It can be accessed through the Center for Effective Discipline (www.StopHitting.org).
Readings
American Academy of Pediatrics – Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (1998). Guidance for Effective Discipline. Pediatrics 101: 723-728.
Fraiberg S, Adelson E, and Shapiro V (1975). Ghosts in the nursery: A psychoanalytic approach to the problems of impaired infant-mother relationships. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 14 (1975): 387-421.
Gershoff ET (2008). Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children. Columbus OH: Center for Effective Discipline.
Gershoff ET (2002). Physical punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin 128: 539-579.
Posted on August 19, 2009 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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In the last few articles, the earliest feelings of your baby have been described—feelings that are actually built-in by the time your baby is born. There is some scientific controversy about how many primary feelings exist, but, as noted previously, the best model suggests nine feelings: interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, anger, fear, shame, disgust (reaction to toxic tastes), and dissmell (reaction to toxic odors).
Now, how do these feelings work? Try putting aside everything you have ever learned about feelings before!
Surprise, fear, and interest depend on the speed of the in-coming stimulus. Any stimulus (noise, light, etc.) which comes in very fast will cause the baby to be surprised (and to show that facial expression). If the stimulus comes in a bit slower, the baby will register fear. And if the stimulus comes in still more slowly, interest is seen in the baby’s face. Previous posts show these expressions. Think about it in terms of the baby’s brain needing time to process the incoming information, and showing these various expressions as it does so. This model also takes into account individual differences between babies, because different babies will process different information at different rates.
Example: Several young children are walking to a auditorium somewhat near an airport. Suddenly, there is a loud noise, and the children jump, their faces showing a surprise reaction; moments later, their faces show the fear expression; and then, as they look up and realize the noise was caused by an airplane flying low over the rooftops, they manifest the interest expression. These feelings, or “affects”, can occur very quickly—milliseconds.
Distress and anger do not depend on the speed of the in-coming stimulus, but rather on the amount, or quantity, of the stimulus. Any stimulus (again, light or noise or pain or whatever) which is too much for the baby will cause the distress reaction. If this stimulus becomes greater or is sustained too long, the anger reaction occurs. This is very important for parents to understand…the anger of a baby (and adult!) is simply excessive distress, a “too muchness”! Think of adults: too much stress leads to distress; even more stress leads to irritability and anger.
Also, too much of any negative feeling can lead to anger. Example: Your young child runs into the street. When you catch up to him, you are mad. Why? Because your fear and distress were triggered and heightened, and then morphed into anger.
Enjoyment is signaled by a decrease in tension. Think of how you feel when you are distressed or scared of something and the issue is resolved.
Shame is a reaction to the interruption of interest and/or enjoyment. Example: The baby is in her high chair with a cup of milk in front of her. The parent leaves the room, and the baby begins playing with the milk…it smells good, tastes good, and looks neat as it splashes out of the cup; she lifts the cup up and slowly begins pouring it out, making a wonderful white waterfall—and then the parent walks in again! “What in the world are you doing?” her parent may yelp, and with this interruption of the baby’s interest and exploratory activities, the baby’s eyes may drop, head avert, and shoulders slump, in the classic expression of shame.
Disgust and dissmell are the body’s defensive reactions to bad toxic tastes and odors, respectively. Later, they take on psychological meaning, such as “this situation leaves a bad taste in my mouth.”
So try thinking about your and your baby’s feelings in this different way. Adults have these feelings too: these nine feelings combine with each other and with experience to form our more complex adult emotional life.
Readings
The following readings give more examples and pictures, and, for those who are interested, convey some of the complexities of this model.
Holinger, Paul C. (2003) . What Babies Say Before They Can Tal k: The Nine Signals Infants Use To Express Their Feelings. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Holinger, Paul C. (2008). Further issues in the psychology of affect and motivation: A developmental perspective. Psychoanalytic Psychology 25:425-442.
Posted on August 19, 2009 by
Paul C. Holinger |
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We turn now to the built-in negative feelings. These are terribly important: they represent your baby’s way of sending an SOS signal, saying “Help! I’m in trouble! Please help me!” Later we will talk about how these feelings work and why they are SOS signals, but for now let’s just describe these feelings.
There are six negative feelings.
Distress: Distress is an “SOS” signal – the baby is saying “I need help! Something is wrong!” The eyebrows arch in the middle, the corners of the mouth turn down, and there may be tears and crying, or fussiness.
Anger: Anger is really an “SOS” signal! While most of us feel assaulted and hurt by someone’s anger, anger from the baby really means “I need help!” Why? Because anger is simply excessive distress. There may be a clenched jaw, red face, slit eyes, distended nostrils; or you may see the “roar of rage,” with screaming, kicking, hitting, or biting.
Fear: Fear occurs when something happens too quickly for the baby to control or understand. Fear is quite toxic and may be expressed in several ways. The baby’s eyes may be frozen open, skin pale, trembling, hair on end; she may be very still or cry out.
Shame: A shame reaction occurs when your baby’s interest or enjoyment feeling is interrupted. Shame is marked by slumped shoulders, downcast eyes, and sometimes head averted.
Disgust: This is a reaction to bad tastes – it is built-in to protect your baby! Disgust is shown by a protruding lower lip and tongue, sometimes with spitting things out or becoming nauseous and vomiting. Later, this reaction is expressed psychologically, as in “this situation left a bad taste in my mouth.”
Dissmell: This is also a protective device – it protects the baby from substances with bad odors. The baby raises and averts his head, raises his upper lip and wrinkles his nose. Later this reaction turns into the feeling that “this idea smells bad.”
This, then, completes our list of nine built-in feelings. Next time we talk about how these feelings work – and when you understand how they work, your life as a parent becomes much easier!
